Report Citations & Additional Resources
Rethinking Municipal Policy Responses to Encampments: Building a Human Rights Approach in Ontario
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1 Coulthard, G. S. (2014). Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition. University of Minnesota Press.
2 It is important to note that while human rights language is useful as a means of communicating to/with government, it is often rooted in the same settler-colonial system that has led to Indigenous dispossession in Canada, and does not capture Indigenous knowledges or ways of relating to land. 3 Boucher, L. M., Dodd, Z., Young, S., Shahid, A., Bayoumi, A., Firestone, M., & Kendall, C. E. (2022). “They have their security, we have our community”: Mutual support among people experiencing homelessness in encampments in Toronto during the COVID-19 pandemic. SSM-Qualitative Research in Health, 2, 100163. 4 Gordon da Cruz, C. (2017). Critical community-engaged scholarship: Communities and universities striving for racial justice. Peabody Journal of Education, 92(3), 363-384. 5 Gordon, T. (2004). The return of vagrancy law and the politics of poverty in Canada. Canadian Review of Social Policy, (54), 34. 6 Chapman, C. ; W. (2019). A Violent History of Benevolence: Interlocking Oppression in the Moral Economies of Social Working. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 7 Kaufman, D. (2022). Expulsion: A type of forced mobility experienced by homeless people in Canada. Urban Geography, 43(3), 321-343. 8 Saelinger, D. (2006). Nowhere to go: The impacts of city ordinances criminalizing homelessness. Georgetown Journal on Poverty Law & Policy, 13, 545. 9 Chesnay, C. T., Bellot, C., & Sylvestre, M. E. (2013). Taming disorderly people one ticket at a time: The penalization of homelessness in Ontario and British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 55(2), 161-185. 10 Howlett, M., Ramesh, M., & Perl, A. (2009). Studying public policy: Policy cycles and policy subsystems (Vol. 3). Oxford: Oxford university press. 11 Ibid. 12 Malenfant, J., Annan, J., Pin, L., Levac, L., & Buchnea, A. (2024). Toward the right to housing in Canada: lived experience, research and promising practices in deep engagement. Engaged Scholar Journal, 10(2), 1-22. 13 Farha, L., & Schwan, K. (2020). A National Protocol on Homeless Encampments: A human rights approach. The Shift. https://www.make-the-shift.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/A National-Protocol-for-Homeless-Encampments-in-Canada.pdf 14 Ontario Human Rights Commission. (2022, December 15). OHRC statement on human rights and encampments and shelter closings. https://www3.ohrc.on.ca/en/news-center/ohrc-statement-human-rights-and-encampments-and-shelter-closings 15 Flynn, A., Hermer, J., Leblanc, C., MacDonald, S.-A., Schwan, K., &; Van Wagner, E. (2022). Overview of encampments across Canada: A right to housing approach. The Office of the Federal Housing Advocate. https://homelesshub.ca/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Overview-of-Encampments-Across-Canada_EN_1.pdf 16 Supra note 13 at 19. 17 Westbrook, M., & Robinson, T. (2021). Unhealthy by design: health & safety consequences of the criminalization of homelessness. Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness, 30(2), 107-115. 18 Rankin, S. (2021). Civilly Criminalizing Homelessness. Harvard Civil Rights – Civil Liberties Law Review, 56(2), 367-412. https://journals.law.harvard.edu/crcl/wp-content/uploads/sites/80/2021/10/Rankin.pdf. 19 Supra note 15 at 44. 20 Supra note 13 at 27. 21 Supra note 14. 22 O’Carroll, A., & Wainwright, D. (2019). Making sense of street chaos: an ethnographic exploration of homeless people’s health service utilization. International journal for equity in health, 18(1), 113. 23 Supra note 13 at 2. 24 Supra note 15 at 51. 25 Heritz, J. (2018). From self‐determination to service delivery: Assessing Indigenous inclusion in municipal governance in Canada. Canadian Public Administration, 61(4), 596-615. 26 Supra note 13 at 28-29. 27 Supra note 15 at 51. 28 In Ontario, an upper-tier municipality is a regional or county government that delivers services across multiple local municipalities. A lower-tier municipality is a city, town, or township that provides local services within an upper-tier municipality. A designated housing service provider is a municipality or specially formed district responsible for planning and delivering social housing and homelessness services. 29 For a full list of municipalities, see Appendix 1. 30 As of January 2025, the City of Hamilton has repealed its encampment protocol. This report reflects the protocol that was in place prior to this time. 31 Greater Sudbury. (n.d). Greater Sudbury Encampment Response. https://www.greatersudbury.ca/sites/sudburyen/assets/File/Homelessness/Encampment -Response-Infographic.pdf |
This report is part of a project called “Realizing the Right: Municipal Policy Responses to Encampments” a multi-year community engaged project focused on understanding how municipalities in Ontario are responding to encampments.
View all project outputs
Rethinking Municipal Policy Responses to Encampments: Building a Human Rights Approach in Ontario
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32 City of Kingston. (n.d.). Homelessness Services - Encampment Protocol Procedures. https://www.cityofkingston.ca/communitysupports/housing-and-homelessness/homelessness-services/#:~:text=Encampment%20protocol%20procedures
33 City of Brantford. (n.d.) Encampment Response. https://www.brantford.ca/en/living-here/encampment-response.aspx#Are-there-people-in-Brantford-Brant-sleeping-unsheltered
34 City of London. (2024). London’s Health and Homelessness Response: Community Encampment Plan. London, ON: City of London, p.17.
https://london.ca/sites/default/files/202504/London%E2%80%99s%20Health%20and%20Homelessness%20Response%20Community%20Encampment%20Plan.pdf
35 Regional Municipality of Niagara. (2023). Preliminary analysis of Ontario Superior Court decisions and implications for corporation of the Regional Municipality of Niagara’s encampment strategy (Report No. COM C 16-2023). Region of Niagara, ON., p. 3. https://pub-niagararegion.escribemeetings.com/filestream.ashx?DocumentId=29716
36 Supra note 33.
37 OrgCode Consulting Inc. (2021). Greater Sudbury Encampment Response Guide.Sudbury, ON. p. 14.
https://www.greatersudbury.ca/sites/sudburyen/assets/File/Homelessness/Greater-Sudbury-Encampment-and-Action-Plan.pdf
38 City of Thunder Bay. (2023). Response to Unsheltered Homelessness: A Protocol for the City of Thunder Bay. (Report No. 157-2023-D). Thunder Bay, ON., p. 7 https://pub-thunderbay.escribemeetings.com/filestream.ashx?DocumentId=2186
39 For more details on London’s Service Depots, see note 34.
40 O’Grady, B., Gaetz, S., & Buccieri, K. (2013). Tickets… and more tickets: A case study of the enforcement of the Ontario Safe Streets Act. Canadian Public Policy, 39(4), 541-558.
41 The City of Guelph and the City of London both have bylaws prohibiting certain forms of cooking in public. The City of Guelph and City of Hamilton protocols include prohibitions on certain types of cooking.
42 The City of London and the City of Waterloo.
43 City of Toronto. (2024). Inter-divisional protocol for encampments in Toronto. Toronto, ON, p. 5. https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2024/ec/bgrd/backgroundfile-245821.pdf
44 Supra note 34.
45 Supra note 34 at 4.
46 Supra note 33.
47 Supra note 37.
48 City of Hamilton. (2024). Revised encampment protocol. Hamilton, ON., p. 4
https://www.hamilton.ca/sites/default/files/2024-07/proposed-encampment-protocol-jun2024.pdf
49 Supra note 22.
50 Supra note 34 at 17.
51 Supra note 37 at 16.
52 Regional Municipality of Waterloo. (2021). Policy Review of Region Bylaw 13-050 – Use or Occupation of Region-owned Public Land., p 105. https://calendar.regionofwaterloo.ca/Council/Detail/2021-12-15-2000-Council/46f7e0d9-9b98-450a-afb0-ae000144045d
53 Supra note 43 at 5-6.
54 City of Guelph. (2024). Staff Report: Public Space Use Bylaw. Guelph, ON., p. 5
https://pub-guelph.escribemeetings.com/filestream.ashx?DocumentId=44259
55 CBC News. (2023, June 2). Encampment plan — question & answer response: Hamilton. CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/encampment-plan-question-answer-response-1.6902080
56 Supra note 37 at 4.
57 Supra note 43.
58 Ibid. p.4.
59 Supra note 34.
60 Supra note 43 at 9.
61 CBC News. (2025, September 16). Forcible eviction of Toronto’s Dufferin Grove encampment would be “last resort” — city spokesperson. CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/forcible-eviction-dufferin-grove-last-resort-1.7635482
62 Thistle, J. A. (2017). Definition of Indigenous Homelessness in Canada.
https://www.homelesshub.ca/sites/default/files/COHIndigenousHomelessnessDefinition.pdf
63 Supra note 34 at 15.
64 Supra note 37 at 18.
65 Supra note 43 at 10.
66 For example, see O’Grady, B., Gaetz, S., & Buccieri, K. (2013). Tickets… and more tickets: A case study of the enforcement of the Ontario Safe Streets Act. Canadian Public Policy, 39(4), 541-558; and Herring, C., Yarbrough, D., & Marie Alatorre, L. (2020). Pervasive penality: How the criminalization of poverty perpetuates homelessness. Social Problems, 67(1), 131-149
33 City of Brantford. (n.d.) Encampment Response. https://www.brantford.ca/en/living-here/encampment-response.aspx#Are-there-people-in-Brantford-Brant-sleeping-unsheltered
34 City of London. (2024). London’s Health and Homelessness Response: Community Encampment Plan. London, ON: City of London, p.17.
https://london.ca/sites/default/files/202504/London%E2%80%99s%20Health%20and%20Homelessness%20Response%20Community%20Encampment%20Plan.pdf
35 Regional Municipality of Niagara. (2023). Preliminary analysis of Ontario Superior Court decisions and implications for corporation of the Regional Municipality of Niagara’s encampment strategy (Report No. COM C 16-2023). Region of Niagara, ON., p. 3. https://pub-niagararegion.escribemeetings.com/filestream.ashx?DocumentId=29716
36 Supra note 33.
37 OrgCode Consulting Inc. (2021). Greater Sudbury Encampment Response Guide.Sudbury, ON. p. 14.
https://www.greatersudbury.ca/sites/sudburyen/assets/File/Homelessness/Greater-Sudbury-Encampment-and-Action-Plan.pdf
38 City of Thunder Bay. (2023). Response to Unsheltered Homelessness: A Protocol for the City of Thunder Bay. (Report No. 157-2023-D). Thunder Bay, ON., p. 7 https://pub-thunderbay.escribemeetings.com/filestream.ashx?DocumentId=2186
39 For more details on London’s Service Depots, see note 34.
40 O’Grady, B., Gaetz, S., & Buccieri, K. (2013). Tickets… and more tickets: A case study of the enforcement of the Ontario Safe Streets Act. Canadian Public Policy, 39(4), 541-558.
41 The City of Guelph and the City of London both have bylaws prohibiting certain forms of cooking in public. The City of Guelph and City of Hamilton protocols include prohibitions on certain types of cooking.
42 The City of London and the City of Waterloo.
43 City of Toronto. (2024). Inter-divisional protocol for encampments in Toronto. Toronto, ON, p. 5. https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2024/ec/bgrd/backgroundfile-245821.pdf
44 Supra note 34.
45 Supra note 34 at 4.
46 Supra note 33.
47 Supra note 37.
48 City of Hamilton. (2024). Revised encampment protocol. Hamilton, ON., p. 4
https://www.hamilton.ca/sites/default/files/2024-07/proposed-encampment-protocol-jun2024.pdf
49 Supra note 22.
50 Supra note 34 at 17.
51 Supra note 37 at 16.
52 Regional Municipality of Waterloo. (2021). Policy Review of Region Bylaw 13-050 – Use or Occupation of Region-owned Public Land., p 105. https://calendar.regionofwaterloo.ca/Council/Detail/2021-12-15-2000-Council/46f7e0d9-9b98-450a-afb0-ae000144045d
53 Supra note 43 at 5-6.
54 City of Guelph. (2024). Staff Report: Public Space Use Bylaw. Guelph, ON., p. 5
https://pub-guelph.escribemeetings.com/filestream.ashx?DocumentId=44259
55 CBC News. (2023, June 2). Encampment plan — question & answer response: Hamilton. CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/encampment-plan-question-answer-response-1.6902080
56 Supra note 37 at 4.
57 Supra note 43.
58 Ibid. p.4.
59 Supra note 34.
60 Supra note 43 at 9.
61 CBC News. (2025, September 16). Forcible eviction of Toronto’s Dufferin Grove encampment would be “last resort” — city spokesperson. CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/forcible-eviction-dufferin-grove-last-resort-1.7635482
62 Thistle, J. A. (2017). Definition of Indigenous Homelessness in Canada.
https://www.homelesshub.ca/sites/default/files/COHIndigenousHomelessnessDefinition.pdf
63 Supra note 34 at 15.
64 Supra note 37 at 18.
65 Supra note 43 at 10.
66 For example, see O’Grady, B., Gaetz, S., & Buccieri, K. (2013). Tickets… and more tickets: A case study of the enforcement of the Ontario Safe Streets Act. Canadian Public Policy, 39(4), 541-558; and Herring, C., Yarbrough, D., & Marie Alatorre, L. (2020). Pervasive penality: How the criminalization of poverty perpetuates homelessness. Social Problems, 67(1), 131-149